Marcus Cocceius Nerva, First of Romes Good Emperors

Marcus Cocceius Nerva, First of Rome's Good Emperors Marcus Cocceius Nerva (November 8, 30 CEâ€January 27, 98 CE) administered Rome as head from 96â€98 CE following the death of the much-detested Emperor Domitian. Nerva was the first of the five great rulers and was the first to receive a beneficiary who wasnt part of his organic family. Nerva had been a companion of the Flavians without offspring of his own. He fabricated water channels, dealt with the vehicle framework, and manufactured silos to improve the food gracefully. Quick Facts: Marcus Cocceius Nerva Known For: Well-respected and regarded Roman emperorAlso Known As: Nerva, Nerva Caesar AugustusBorn: November 8, 30 CE in Narnia, Umbria part of the Roman EmpireParents: Marcus Cocceius Nerva and Sergia PlautillaDied: January 27, 98 CE at the Gardens of Sallust, RomePublished Works: Lyric poetryAwards and Honors: Ornamenta Triumphalia for military serviceSpouse: NoneChildren: Marcus Ulpius Traianus, Trajan, the legislative leader of Upper Germany (adopted)Notable Quote: â€Å"I have done nothing that would forestall me setting out the majestic office and coming back to private life in safety.† Early Life Nerva was conceived November 8, 30 CE, in Narnia, Umbria, north of Rome. He originated from a long queue of Roman blue-bloods: his extraordinary granddad M. Cocceius Nerva was emissary in 36 CE, his granddad was a notable diplomat and companion of Emperor Tiberius, his moms auntie was the extraordinary granddaughter of Tiberius, and his distant uncle was an arbitrator for the ruler Octavian. While little is known about Nervas training or adolescence, he didn't turn into a military expert. He was, in any case, notable for his wonderful compositions. Early Career Nerva, following in his familys strides, sought after a political profession. He became praetor-choose in 65 CE and turned into a counselor to Emperor Nero. He found and uncovered a plot against Nero (the Pisonian intrigue); his work on this issue was huge to such an extent that he got military triumphal distinctions (however not an individual from the military). Moreover, sculptures of his resemblance were put in the castle. Neros self destruction in 68 prompted a time of disarray some of the time called the Year of Four Emperors. In 69, because of obscure administrations rendered, Nerva turned into a delegate under Emperor Vespasian. Despite the fact that there are no records to help the supposition, it appears to be likely that Nerva proceeded as emissary under Vespasians children Titus and Domitian until the year 89 CE. Nerva as Emperor Domitian, because of connivances against him, had become a cruel and wrathful pioneer. On September 18, 96, he was killed in a castle scheme. A few students of history theorize that Nerva may have been engaged with the intrigue. At any rate, it appears to be likely that he knew about it. Around the same time, the Senate declared Nerva sovereign. At the point when named, Nerva was at that point a ways into his sixties and had medical problems, so it was impossible he would manage for long. Also, he had no youngsters, which brought up issues about his replacement; it might be that he was chosen explicitly in light of the fact that he would have the option to handpick the following Roman ruler. The underlying long periods of Nervas administration concentrated on reviewing Domitians wrongs. Sculptures of the previous ruler were obliterated, and Nerva allowed acquittal to numerous whom Domitian had ousted. Following convention, he executed no representatives yet did, as indicated by Cassius Dio, â€Å"put to death all the slaves and freedmen who contrived against their masters.† While many were happy with Nervas approach, the military stayed faithful to Domitian, to some degree due to his liberal compensation. Individuals from the Praetorian Guard defied Nerva, detaining him in the castle and requesting the arrival of Petronius and Parthenius, two of Domitians professional killers. Nerva really offered his own neck in return for those of the detainees, however the military cannot. At long last, the professional killers were caught and executed, while Nerva was discharged. While Nerva held force, his certainty was shaken. He spent a significant part of the rest of his 16-month rule endeavoring to balance out the domain and guarantee his own progression. Among his accomplishments were the devotion of another gathering, fixing streets, reservoir conduits, and the Colosseum, designating area to poor people, diminishing expenses forced on Jews, organizing new laws restricting open games, and practicing more noteworthy oversight over the spending plan. Progression There is no record that Nerva wedded, and he had no natural youngsters. His answer was to receive a child, and he chose Marcus Ulpius Traianus, Trajan, the legislative head of Upper Germany. The appropriation, which occurred in October of 97, permitted Nerva to assuage the military by choosing a military administrator as his beneficiary; simultaneously, it permitted him to merge his authority and assume responsibility for the areas in the north. Trajan was the first of many received beneficiaries, a large number of whom served Rome amazingly well. Indeed, Trajans own administration is once in a while portrayed as a brilliant age. Demise Nerva had a stroke in January 98, and after three weeks he kicked the bucket. Trajan, his replacement, had Nervas remains put in the tomb of Augustus and requested that the Senate exalt him. Heritage Nerva was the first of five sovereigns who directed the greatest days of the Roman Empire, as his initiative set up for this time of Roman magnificence. The other four great heads were Trajan (98â€117), Hadrian (117â€138), Antoninus Pius (138â€161), and Marcus Aurelius (161â€180). Every one of these rulers hand-chose his replacement through selection. During this period, the Roman Empire extended to incorporate the north of Britain just as segments of Arabia and Mesopotamia. Roman human progress was at its stature and a predictable type of government and culture extended over the whole realm. Simultaneously, be that as it may, the administration turned out to be progressively brought together; while there were advantages to this methodology, it additionally made Rome increasingly powerless over the long haul. Sources Dio, Cassius. Roman History by Cassius Dio distributed in Vol. VIII of the Loeb Classical Library release, 1925.The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. â€Å"Nerva.† Encyclopã ¦dia Britannica.ï » ¿Wend, David. Nerva. An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors.

Aerodynamics of Golf Balls :: physics sport sports golf

Prologue to Aerodynamics Optimal design is the investigation of the movement of liquids in the gas state and bodies moving comparative with the liquid/air. At the end of the day the investigation of streamlined features is the investigation of liquid elements explicitly identifying with air or the gas condition of issue. At the point when an article goes through liquid/air there are two sorts of stream attributes that occur, laminar and tempestuous. Laminar stream is a smooth consistent stream over a smooth surface and it has little unsettling influence. Instinct would prompt the conviction that this kind of wind current would be attractive. It would bode well to expect that this smooth undisturbed air would make minimal measure of resistive power because of erosion. The golf ball apparently opposes this hypothesis by voyaging more distant with its problematic surface that makes the second stream trademark, fierce stream. Fierce stream is stream that is upset and makes whirlpool like highlights. The violent air really decreases the distinction in speed of the air layer that is incredibly near the ball contrasted with the remainder of the air thus reduces the contact following up on the ball. Drag is a significant supporter of how an item goes through liquid/air. Drag is brought about by the disturbed air promptly behind an article traveling through liquid/air. It acts opposite to and the other way of movement of the article and hinders the movement of the item. It would bode well that if the drag is limited the article will travel more distant. Lift or bend in the movement of an item through air is a marvels that is perceptible in a ball going through liquid/air. This adjustment in bearing is because of the impact that turn has on the article moving. This can be clarified by Bernoulli's Principle. Bernoulli, a 1700's physicist and mathematician, demonstrated that the speed of an article through fluid/air changes the weight of the air. The speed of a turning ball comparative with the air is unique in relation to the other side to the next making a low weight on one side and a high weight on the other. This makes the ball move toward the lower pressure. The golf ball is ordinarily hit with an undercut causing a converse pivot and in this manner a lifting activity ready. The History of Golf Balls The golf ball has changed significantly as the years progressed. Smooth hardwood balls were utilized between the 1400 and 1700's.

Research and Development (RD)

Research and Development (RD) Companies often spend resources on certain investigative undertakings in an effort to make discoveries that can help develop new products or way of doing things or work towards enhancing pre-existing products or processes. These activities come under the Research and Development (RD) umbrella.RD is an important means for achieving future growth and maintaining a relevant product in the market. There is a misconception that RD is the domain of high tech technology firms or the big pharmaceutical companies. In fact, most established consumer goods companies dedicate a significant part of their resources towards developing new versions of products or improving existing designs. However, where most other firms may only spend less than 5 percent of their revenue on research, industries such as pharmaceutical, software or high technology products need to spend significantly given the nature of their products. © Shutterstock.com | Alexander RathsIn this article, we look at 1) types of RD, 2) understanding similar terminology, 3) making the RD decision, 4) basic RD process, 5) creating an effective RD process,  6) advantages of RD, and 7) RD challenges.TYPES OF RDA US government agency, the National Science Foundation defines three types of RD.Basic ResearchWhen research aims to understand a subject matter more completely and build on the body of knowledge relating to it, then it falls in the basic research category. This research does not have much practical or commercial application. The findings of such research may often be of potential interest to a companyApplied ResearchApplied research has more specific and directed objectives. This type of research aims to determine methods to address a specific customer/industry need or requirement. These investigations are all focused on specific commercial objectives regarding products or processes.DevelopmentDevelopment is when findings of a r esearch are utilized for the production of specific products including materials, systems and methods. Design and development of prototypes and processes are also part of this area. A vital differentiation at this point is between development and engineering or manufacturing. Development is research that generates requisite knowledge and designs for production and converts these into prototypes. Engineering is utilization of these plans and research to produce commercial products.UNDERSTANDING SIMILAR  TERMINOLOGYThere are a number of terms that are often used interchangeably. Thought there is often overlap in all of these processes, there still remains a considerable difference in what they represent. This is why it is important to understand these differences.RDThe creation of new body of knowledge about existing products or processes, or the creation of an entirely new product is called RD. This is systematic creative work, and the resulting new knowledge is then used to formulat e new materials or entire new products as well as to alter and improve existing onesInnovationInnovation includes either of two events or a combination of both of them. These are either the exploitation of a new market opportunity or the development and subsequent marketing of a technical invention. A technical invention with no demand will not be an innovation.New Product DevelopmentThis is a management or business term where there is some change in the appearance, materials or marketing of a product but no new invention. It is basically the conversion of a market need or opportunity into a new product or a product upgradeDesignWhen an idea is turned into information which can lead to a new product then it is called design. This term is interpreted differently from country to country and varies between analytical marketing approaches to a more creative process.Product DesignMisleadingly thought of as the superficial appearance of a product, product design actually encompasses a lot more. It is a cross functional process that includes market research, technical research, design of a concept, prototype creation, final product creation and launch. Usually, this is the refinement of an existing product rather than a new product.MAKING THE RD DECISIONInvestment in RD can be extensive and a long term commitment. Often, the required knowledge already exists and can be acquired for a price. Before committing to investment in RD, a company needs to analyze whether it makes more sense to produce their own knowledge base or acquire existing work. The influence of the following factors can help make this decision.ProprietarinessIf the nature of the research is such that it can be protected through patents or non-disclosure agreements, then this research becomes the sole property of the company undertaking it and becomes much more valuable. Patents can allow a company several years of a head start to maximize profits and cement its position in the market. This sort of sit uation justifies the cost of the RD process. On the other hand, if the research cannot be protected, then it may be easily copied by a competitor with little or no monetary expense. In this case, it may be a good idea to acquire research.TimingSetting up a RD wing only makes sense if the market growth rate is slow or relatively moderate. In a fast paced environment, competitors may rush ahead before research has been completed, making the entire process useless.RiskBecause of its nature, RD is not always a guaranteed success commercially. In this regard, it may be desirable to acquire the required research to convert it into necessary marketable products. There is significantly less risk in acquisition as there may be an opportunity to test the technology out before formally purchasing anything.CostConsidering the long term potential success of a product, acquiring technology is less risky but more costly than generating own research. This is because license fees or royalties may ne ed to be paid and there may even be an arrangement that requires payments tied to sales figures and may continue for as long as the license period. There is also the danger of geographical limitations or other restrictive caveats. In addition, if the technology changes mid license, all the investment will become a sunk cost. Setting up RD has its own costs associated with it. There needs to be massive initial investment that leads to negative cash flow for a long time. But it does protect the company from the rest of the limitations of acquiring research.All these aspects need to be carefully assessed and a pros vs. cons assessment needs to be conducted before the make or buy decision is finalized.BASIC RD PROCESSThe RD may take months or years to yield fruitful results. Manufacturers of a variety of products utilize this process for new product development and innovation. Though each company or industry may have its own unique research methodology, a basic research process will for m the framework for it. Foster IdeasAt this point the research team may sit down to brainstorm. The discussion may start with an understanding and itemization of the issues faced in their particular industry and then narrowed down to important or core areas of opportunity or concern.Focus IdeasThe initial pool of ideas is vast and may be generic. The team will then sift through these and locate ideas with potential or those that do not have insurmountable limitations. At this point the team may look into existing products and assess how original a new idea is and how well it can be developed.Develop IdeasOnce an idea has been thoroughly researched, it may be combined with a market survey to assess market readiness. Ideas with true potential are once again narrowed down and the process of turning research into a marketable commodity begins.Prototypes and TrialsResearchers may work closely with product developers to understand and agree on how an idea may be turned into a practical product. As the process ite rates, the prototype complexity may start to increase and issues such as mass production and sales tactics may begin to enter the process.Regulatory, Marketing Product Development ActivitiesAs the product takes shape, the process that began with RD divides into relevant areas necessary to bring the research product to the market. Regulatory aspects are assessed and work begins to meet all the criteria for approvals and launch. The marketing function begins developing strategies and preparing their materials while sales, pricing and distribution are also planned for.LaunchThe product that started as a research question will now be ready for its biggest test, the introduction to the market. The evaluation of the product continues at this stage and beyond, eventually leading to possible re-designs if needed. At any point in this process the idea may be abandoned. Its feasibility may be questioned or the research may not reveal what the business hoped for. It is therefore important to analyze each idea critically at every stage and not become emotionally invested in anything.CREATING AN EFFECTIVE RD  PROCESSA formal RD function adds great value to any organization. It can significantly contribute towards organizational growth and sustained market share. However, all business may not have the necessary resources to set up such a function. In such cases, or in organizations where a formal RD function is not really required, it is a good idea to foster an RD mindset. When all employees are encouraged to think creatively and with a research oriented thought process, they all feel invested in the business and there will be the possibility of innovation and unique ideas and solutions. This mindset can be slowly inculcated within the company by following the steps mentioned below.Assess Customer NeedsIt is a good idea to regularly scan and assess the market and identify whether the company’s offering is doing well or if it is in trouble. If it is successful, encourage employees to identify reasons for success so that these can then be used as benchmarks or best practices. If the product is not doing well, then encourage teams to research reasons why. Perhaps a competitor is offering a better solution or perhaps the product cannot meet the customer’s needs effectively.Identify ObjectivesAllow your employees to see clearly what the business objectives are. The end goal for a commercial enterprise is to enhance profits. If this is the case, then all research the employees engage in should focus on reaching this goal while fulfilling a customer need.Define and Design ProcessesA definite project management process helps keep formal and informal research programs on schedule. Realistic goals and targets help focus the process and ensures that relevant and realistic timelines are decided upon.Create a TeamA team may need to be created if a specific project is on the agenda. This team should be cross functional and will be able to work towards a speci fic goal in a systematic manner. If the surrounding organizational environment also has a research mindset then they will be better prepared and suited to assist the core team when ever needed.OutsourceWhenever needed, it may be a good idea to outsource research projects. Universities and specific research organizations can help achieve research objectives that may not be manageable within a limited organizational budget.ADVANTAGES OF RDThough setting up an RD function is not an easy task by any means, it has its unique advantages for the organization. These include the following.Tax breaksResearch and Development expenses are often tax deductible. This depends on the country of operations of course but a significant write-off can be a great way to offset large initial investments. But it is important to understand what kind of research activities are deductible and which ones are not. Generally, things like market research or an assessment of historical information are not deductib le.CostsA company can use research to identify leaner and more cost effective means of manufacturing. This reduction in cost can either help provide a more reasonably priced product to the customer or increase the profit margin.FinancingWhen an investor sets out to put their resources into any company, they tend to prefer those who can become market leaders and innovate constantly. An effective RD function goes a long way in helping to achieve these objectives for a company. Investors see this as a proactive approach to business and they may end up financing the costs associated with maintaining this RD function.RecruitmentTop talent is also attracted to innovative companies doing exciting things. With a successful Research and Development function, qualified candidates will be excited to join the company.PatentsThrough RD based developments, companies can acquire patents for their products. These can help them gain market advantage and cement their position in the industry. This on e time product development can lead to long term profits.RD CHALLENGESRD also has many challenges associated with it. These may include the following.High CostsInitial setup costs as well as continued investment are necessary to keep research work cutting edge and relevant. Not all companies may find it feasible to continue this expenditure.Increased TimescalesOnce a commitment to RD is made, it may take many years for the actual product to reach the market and a number of years will be filled with no return on continued heavy investment.Uncertain ResultsNot all research that is undertaken yields results. Many ideas and solutions are scrapped midway and work has to start from the beginning.Market ConditionsThere is always the danger that a significant new invention or innovation will render years of research obsolete and create setbacks in the industry with competitors becoming front runners for the customer’s business.It is important for any business to understand the advantages and disadvantages of engaging in Research and Development activities. Once these are studied, then the step can be taken towards becoming and RD organization.In the meanwhile, it is good practice to inculcate a research mind set and research oriented thinking within all employees, no matter what their functional area of expertise. This will help bring about new ideas, new solutions and an innovative way of approaching all business problems, whether small or large.